CHAPTER 18

CHAPTER 18
The Machine Age, 1877 1920

Chapter Summary
The theme of Chapter 18 is industrialization as a major component of American expansion in the late nineteenth century. Two technological developments that fostered the “second” industrial revolution of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries are mentioned in the chapter’s introduction (the rise of electric-powered machines and expansion of engines powered by internal combustion). The relationship between these two developments and industrialization is obvious in the discussion of Thomas A. Edison and the electric industry, Henry Ford and the automobile industry, and the factors that furthered industrialization in certain industries in the South. Keep these developments in mind as you study the chapter, and try to determine which developments apply to the various topics discussed in the chapter.
Industrialism changed the nature of work and in many respects caused an uneven distribution of power among interest groups in American society. Industrial workers were employees rather than producers, and repeating specialized tasks made them feel like appendages to machines. The emphasis on quantity rather than quality further dehumanized the workplace. These factors, in addition to the increased power of the employer, reduced the independence and self-respect of workers, but worker resistance only led employers to tighten restrictions.
Industrialism also brought more women and children into the labor force. Although job opportunities opened for women, most women went into low-paying clerical jobs, and sex discrimination continued in the workplace. Employers also attempted to cut wage costs by hiring more children. Although a few states passed child-labor laws, such laws were difficult to enforce and employers generally opposed state interference in their hiring practices. Effective child-labor legislation would not come until the twentieth century.
As the nature of work changed, workers began to protest low wages, the attitude of employers, the hazards of the workplace, and the absence of disability insurance and pensions. The effectiveness of legislation designed to redress these grievances was usually limited by conservative Supreme Court rulings. Out of frustration, some workers began to participate in unions and in organized resistance. Unionization efforts took various directions. The Knights of Labor tried to ally all workers by creating producer and consumer cooperatives; the American Federation of Labor strove to organize skilled workers to achieve pragmatic objectives; and the Industrial Workers of the World attempted to overthrow capitalist society. The railroad strikes of 1877, the Haymarket riot, and the Homestead and Pullman strikes were all marked by violence, and they exemplify labor’s frustration as well as its active and organized resistance. Government intervention against the strikers convinced many workers of the imbalance of interest groups in American society, whereas the middle class began to connect organized working-class resistance with radicalism. Although this perception was by and large mistaken, middle-class fear of social upheaval became an additional force against organized labor.
Not only did industrialization affect the nature of work, it also produced a myriad of products that affected the everyday lives of Americans. As America became a consumer-oriented society, most of its citizens faced living costs that rose faster than wages. Consequently, many people could not take advantage of the new goods and services being offered. But, as has been seen, more women and children became part of the paid labor force. Although many did so out of necessity, others hoped that the additional income would allow the family to participate in the consumer society.
Increased availability of goods and services to a greater number of people was not the only reason for a general improvement in living standards. The era also witnessed advances in medical care, better diets, and improved living conditions. Furthermore, education, more than ever a means to upward mobility, became more readily available through the spread of public education.
American habits and attitudes were further affected by the democratization of convenience that resulted from the indoor toilet and private bathtub. At the same time, the tin can and the icebox altered lifestyles and diet, the sewing machine created a clothing revolution, and department stores and chain stores emerged that both created and served the new consumerism.
As American society became more consumer-oriented, brand names for products were created. Used by advertisers to sell products, these brand names in turn created “consumption communities” made up of individuals loyal to those brands. As producers tried to convince consumers of their need for particular products, advertising became more important than ever. And since the major vehicle for advertising in the late nineteenth century was the newspaper, advertising was transformed into news.
Although the American standard of living generally improved during the late nineteenth century, there were unsettling economic forces at work. Although rapid economic growth is a characteristic of the period, the period is also characterized by the economic instability and uncertainty produced by cycles of boom and bust. In an effort to create a sense of order and stability out of the competitive chaos, industrialists turned to economic concentration in the form of pools, trusts, and holding companies. Therefore, the search for order led to the merger movement and to larger and larger combinations that sought domination of their markets through vertical integration.
Defenders of business justified the merger movement and their pursuit of wealth and profits by advancing the “Gospel of Wealth,” based on Social Darwinism and on the precepts of laissez-faire capitalism. The business elite also used this philosophy to justify both its paternalistic attitude toward the less fortunate in society and its advocacy of government aid to business. The paradoxes and inconsistencies associated with the Gospel of Wealth gave rise to dissent from sociologists, economists, and reformers. The general public also began to speak against economic concentration in the form of monopolies and trusts. The inability of state governments to resolve the problem led to passage of the Sherman Anti-Trust Act by Congress in 1890, but this legislation represented a vaguely worded political compromise, the interpretation of which was left to the courts. Narrow interpretation by a conservative Supreme Court and failure by government officials to fully support the act meant that it was used more successfully against organized labor than against business combinations, again illustrating the uneven distribution of power among interest groups in late-nineteenth-century American society.


Learning Objectives
1. Cite the factors related to and resulting from industrialization in the United States.
2. Identify the contributions of Thomas Alva Edison and Henry Ford to industrial development in the United States.
3. Discuss the impact of technology on the development of southern industry.
4. Explain and assess the late-nineteenth-century obsession with time studies and scientific management.
5. Discuss late-nineteenth-century changes in the nature of work, in working conditions, and in the workplace itself, and explain the impact of these changes on American workers.
6. Examine the rise of unionism and the emergence of worker activism in the late nineteenth century, and discuss the reaction of employers, government, and the public to these manifestations of worker discontent.
7. Examine the position of women, children, immigrants, and blacks in the work force and in the union movement in the late nineteenth century.
8. Explain the emergence of the consumer society, and discuss the factors that determined the extent to which working-class Americans were able to participate in this society.
9. Discuss the impact of scientific developments and education on living standards between 1900 and 1920.
10. Discuss the impact of each of the following on American attitudes and lifestyles:
a. The indoor toilet
b. Processed and preserved foods
c. The sewing machine
d. Department stores and chain stores

11. Explain the characteristics of modern advertising and examine its role in industrial America.
12. Examine the corporate consolidation movement of the late nineteenth century, and discuss the consequences of this movement.
13. Explain and evaluate the ideologies of Social Darwinism, laissez-faire capitalism, and the Gospel of Wealth. Explain the impact of these ideas on workers and on the role of government in society.
14. Discuss and evaluate the ideas and suggested reforms of those who dissented from the ideologies of the Gospel of Wealth, Social Darwinism, and laissez-faire capitalism.
15. Discuss the response of all branches of government at the state and national levels to the corporate consolidation movement on the one hand and to the grievances of workers on the other hand.



Chapter Outline
I. Introduction
Industrialization increased significantly between 1877 and 1920 in the United States. This development had momentous effects on standards of living and on the nature of everyday life.

II. Technology and the Triumph of Industrialism
A. Birth of the Electrical Industry
Thomas Edison founded the Edison Electric Light Company, perfected the incandescent bulb, and devised a power generation and distribution system.
A. George Westinghouse
Westinghouse’s use of alternating current made transmission of electric power over long distances cheaper than Edison’s direct current method.
C. Henry Ford and the Automobile Industry
Henry Ford’s use of assembly line methods in the automobile industry made cars more readily available.
D. Technology and Southern Industry
Invention of a machine to roll cigarettes combined with the marketing techniques of James B. Duke made the American Tobacco Company a large nationwide business by 1900.
E. Southern Textile Mills
Industrialization also aided the growth of southern textile industry and led to the emergence of mill towns in the South.
F. Influence of New Machines
New machines introduced in the late nineteenth century altered the economy and everyday life. Technological innovations also led to the emergence of large companies that could take advantage of economies of scale.
G. Frederick W. Taylor and Efficiency
With industrialization, efficient production became crucial to profits. Frederick W. Taylor’s methods of scientific management greatly influenced American thinking.

III. Mechanization and the Changing Status of Labor
A. Employment of Women
Employers cut wages by hiring more women, particularly for clerical and sales positions. Consequently, the number of women in domestic service jobs decreased sharply.
B. Child Labor
A larger number of children began working in nonagricultural jobs, performing light tasks at low wages.
C. Wage Work
Many employers believed in the “iron law of wages” which allowed them to pay their workers as little as possible.
D. Industrial Accidents
Repetitive tasks dulled concentration, often resulting in serious injury, and industrial accidents increased steadily.
E. Courts Restrict Labor Reform
The Supreme Court overturned most hour laws, but in Muller v. Oregon, it allowed limiting women to ten hour days, citing their health as a matter of public interest.
F. Railroad Strikes of 1877
The year 1877 witnessed a violent series of strikes aimed at the railroads. Hard times precipitated the incidents, and the strikers enjoyed the sympathy of other workers.

IV. The Union Movement
A. Knights of Labor
The Knights of Labor accepted all workers and advocated a harmony of interests among its members. Because the union opposed strikes, it had little bargaining power.
B. Haymarket Riot
In 1886, a demonstration at Haymarket Square erupted into a riot that revived middle-class fears of unions.
C. American Federation of Labor
The American Federation of Labor emerged as the major union. A craft union, the AFL pressed for shorter hours and the right to bargain collectively.
D. Pullman Strike
In 1894, workers at the Pullman Palace Car Company went on strike. Grover Cleveland, to ensure mail deliveries, sent troops to put down the strike.
E. IWW
Like the Knights of Labor, the IWW welcomed all workers, but it also advocated socialism and espoused the use of violence and sabotage.
F. Women and the Labor Movement
Many unions denied the inclusion of women workers, leading female employees to organize their own unions.
G. Immigrants, African Americans, and Labor Unions
Unions excluded most immigrant and black workers. Tensions increased when these workers served as strikebreakers.

V. Standards of Living
A. New Availability of Products
Products once considered luxuries became increasingly available to middle-class Americans during the late nineteenth century.
B. Cost of Living
Wage increases meant little because the cost of living rose faster than wages. Many working-class Americans could not afford the goods and services that the age offered.
C. Supplements to Family Income
By sending children and women into the labor force, or by renting rooms to boarders, many families earned enough to buy newly available goods.
D. Higher Life Expectancy
Technological and medical advances extended life spans during this period. Nevertheless, more people died of cancer, heart disease, murder, and automobile accidents.

VI. The Quest for Convenience
A. Flush Toilets
The flush toilet, which became a standard fixture in middle-class urban homes in the 1890s, caused a shift in habits and attitudes.
B. Processed and Preserved Foods
Mass-production of tin cans along with the advent of refrigerated railroad cars made available a wider variety of foods to different areas of the country.
C. Ready Made Clothing
Sewing machines led to mass-produced clothes at low costs and uniform sizes, sparking an interest in fashions.
D. Department and Chain Stores
Department stores fueled consumerism. Also, the Great Atlantic and Pacific Tea Company (A&P) became the first grocery supermarket.
E. Advertising
As supply outpaced demand, advertising helped persuade large groups of people to buy a specific product. Advertisers, mostly through newspapers, were charged with creating consumers who were loyal to a particular brand.

VII. The Corporate Consolidation Movement
A. Role of Corporations
Corporations provided an effective means to raise capital and many saw them as a way to break boom and bust cycles. Courts defined corporations as individuals and protected them under the Fourteenth Amendment.
B. Pools
Consolidation swept the United States. Congress outlawed pools, one popular device, in 1887.
C. Trusts
Rockefeller used a “trust” to achieve horizontal integration of the petroleum industry.
D. Holding Companies
The emergence of holding companies led to vertical integration within some industries.
E. Financiers
Corporate growth brought the rise of experts in financial organization. These men sold stock and borrowed from banks, driving the trading of stocks to a feverish level.

VIII. The Gospel of Wealth and its Critics
A. Social Darwinism
Businessmen subscribed to Social Darwinism, turning the theory of natural selection into laissez faire economics.
B. Government Assistance to Business
Paradoxically, businessmen wanted government help in the form of subsidies, loans, and tariffs. They argued, however, against government assistance for labor.
C. Dissenting Voices
Critics said that trusts and other devices interfered with the American tradition of independence and opportunity.
D. Utopian Economic Schemes
Some critics, such as Henry George and Edward Bellamy, offered economic ideas aimed at the creation of a utopian society.
E. Antitrust Legislation
A few state governments moved to limit monopolies, and in 1890 Congress passed the Sherman Anti-Trust Act. The law was vague and had little immediate effect on trusts since the courts rendered pro business decisions.